NCERT Class 12 Geography (Fundamental of Human Geography) Chapter 4: Primary Activities – Types, Features and Full Chapter PDF

Primary activities are the most basic and oldest types of work done by humans. These include collecting resources directly from nature, such as farming, fishing, mining and forestry. Chapter 4 of Class 12 Geography (Fundamentals of Human Geography) focuses on these activities and how they form the foundation of every economy. It also explains how

I wanted to write about this chapter because many students take these activities for granted, thinking they’re only done in rural areas or poor countries. But that’s not true. Even in advanced economies, farming and mining still play a vital role. Plus, understanding these activities helps us grasp how human life and environment are connected. This chapter is useful not just for board exams, but also for competitive exams like UPSC, as it talks about global examples and economic patterns. I personally find it interesting how something as simple as grazing animals or fishing can be linked to geography, culture and even politics.

What Are Primary Activities?

Primary activities are those that involve direct extraction or use of natural resources. People engaged in these jobs use land, water, forest, and mineral resources.

Key Characteristics

Based on nature and climate
Low use of technology (in traditional forms)
Labour-intensive
Foundation of economic activities in any society

Types of Primary Activities

This chapter discusses various types of primary activities in detail:

1. Hunting and Gathering

Oldest form of human activity
Done mostly by tribal communities in forested or remote regions
Now very limited in scale

2. Pastoralism

Involves rearing animals for milk, meat, wool, etc.
Two types:
- Nomadic Herding: People move with animals in search of food and water. Common in parts of Africa, Central Asia and Rajasthan
- Commercial Livestock Rearing: More organised, done for market supply. Seen in countries like Argentina, Australia, USA

3. Agriculture

Agriculture is the most important primary activity, especially in countries like India.

Types of Agriculture:

Type	Features	Examples
Subsistence Farming	For family needs, low output	NE India, Africa
Intensive Subsistence	High labour, small land, rice cultivation	Ganga plain, China
Commercial Farming	For sale in markets, use of machines/fertilisers	Punjab (wheat), USA (maize)
Plantation Agriculture	Single crop, large area, export-oriented	Tea in Assam, Coffee in Brazil

4. Fishing

Two types: Inland fishing (rivers/lakes) and marine fishing (seas/oceans)
Countries like Japan and Norway are global leaders in commercial fishing
India has a growing fish production industry especially along coastal states

5. Mining

Extracting minerals and fuels from the earth
Can be surface mining or underground mining
Coal, iron ore, gold, petroleum are common resources
Major mining regions: Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh (India), South Africa, Australia

Download PDF: NCERT Class 12 Chapter 4 – Primary Activities

You can get the official NCERT PDF of this chapter from here:

NCERT Class 12 Geography (Fundamental of Human Geography) Chapter 4: Primary Activities

NCERT Class 12 Geography (Fundamental of Human Geography) Chapter 8: International Trade – Free PDF Download and Full Chapter Summary

Chapter 8 of the NCERT Class 12 Geography (Fundamentals of Human Geography) book focuses on International Trade, which is one of the most crucial aspects of a country’s economic and political relations. This chapter explains how countries exchange goods and services across borders, the patterns of trade, the role of organisations like WTO, and India’s

Chapter 8 of the NCERT Class 12 Geography (Fundamentals of Human Geography) book focuses on International Trade, which is one of the most crucial aspects of a country’s economic and political relations. This chapter explains how countries exchange goods and services across borders, the patterns of trade, the role of organisations like WTO, and India’s position in the global trade network. It also talks about different trade routes, major exports and imports, and recent changes in global trade systems.

I chose to write about this chapter because it helps students understand not just bookish definitions but also how the world’s economies are connected. In today’s time, when prices of onions in India are affected by export bans or crude oil rates are driven by international conflicts, this chapter becomes very relatable. I strongly believe students should learn how international decisions impact their own country’s economy. Whether someone is preparing for board exams or competitive ones like UPSC, understanding the basics of trade is a must. That’s why I’ve included a PDF download link also, so students can directly study from the source material.

What is International Trade?

International trade refers to the exchange of goods and services between countries. It helps nations earn foreign exchange, create jobs, and promote economic growth.

There are two main types:

Bilateral Trade: Between two countries (e.g., India and Bangladesh)
Multilateral Trade: Involves many countries (e.g., through WTO)

This chapter also discusses the difference between free trade and protectionism. While free trade supports open markets, protectionism involves tariffs and restrictions to protect domestic industries.

Importance of International Trade

Helps countries get access to goods they cannot produce locally
Promotes cooperation among nations
Brings in foreign exchange
Boosts industrial and agricultural sectors

Major Trade Routes and Patterns

Trade routes are the paths through which goods travel across the globe. These can be land, sea or air routes.

Major Sea Routes

North Atlantic Route (between North America and Europe)
Suez Canal Route (connecting Europe to Asia)
Cape of Good Hope Route (used when Suez Canal is blocked)

Factors Affecting Trade Routes

Physical barriers like mountains and deserts
Political relations between countries
Development of transport and communication

India’s Role in Global Trade

India plays a growing role in world trade, especially in services and IT. The chapter highlights:

India exports textiles, gems and jewellery, software, petroleum products
Imports include crude oil, gold, machinery, electronics
India’s trade partners: USA, China, UAE, Saudi Arabia, and European countries

The chapter also explains government initiatives like:

Make in India
Foreign Trade Policy
Special Economic Zones (SEZs)

These are designed to increase India’s share in international trade.

Role of International Organisations

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an important part of the chapter. It regulates international trade laws and resolves trade disputes. The chapter explains the pros and cons of WTO’s role in developing nations like India.