NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 7: An Imperial Capital Vijayanagara PDF Full Chapter Guide

Chapter 7 of the Class 12 History NCERT book is titled An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara. It takes us deep into the history of one of the grandest cities ever built in medieval South India. Located near the Tungabhadra River in present-day Karnataka, Vijayanagara was once the capital of a mighty empire that flourished between the

Chapter 7 of the Class 12 History NCERT book is titled An Imperial Capital: Vijayanagara. It takes us deep into the history of one of the grandest cities ever built in medieval South India. Located near the Tungabhadra River in present-day Karnataka, Vijayanagara was once the capital of a mighty empire that flourished between the 14th and 17th centuries. The chapter explores its urban planning, religious structures, political significance, and cultural life. It also includes insights from archaeological findings and foreign travellers’ accounts.

I am writing about this topic because the story of Vijayanagara is not just about a lost city but about the height of Indian architecture, governance, and urban planning. Many students treat history as a list of dates and rulers, but this chapter changes that by showing us a real city with real people, temples, markets, and kings. For anyone preparing for board exams, competitive tests, or simply curious about Indian heritage, understanding Vijayanagara gives a vivid picture of how advanced and organised our ancestors were. Plus, the photos and maps in this chapter make it more interesting and relatable.

The Rise of Vijayanagara Empire

The Vijayanagara Empire was founded in 1336 CE by Harihara and Bukka of the Sangama dynasty. It rose to power at a time when many smaller kingdoms were fighting each other, and there was a need to protect southern India from invasions, especially by the Delhi Sultanate. Over the next two centuries, it became a strong centre of trade, military strength, and religious patronage.

Reasons Behind the Empire’s Growth

Strategic Location: Vijayanagara was built on rocky terrain and near the river, making it easy to defend and self-sufficient.
Strong Administration: Kings like Krishnadevaraya ensured smooth functioning through a well-managed bureaucracy.
Religious Harmony: The rulers promoted both Shaivism and Vaishnavism and even supported some Jain and Muslim communities.
Trade and Agriculture: Good irrigation systems and location near the cotton and spice-growing regions helped the economy.
Temple Patronage: The empire is famous for large temples like those in Hampi, which still attract tourists and historians today.

Life in the City of Vijayanagara

What made Vijayanagara unique was how well it was planned and how lively it was. According to the chapter, the city had a mix of grand palaces, crowded bazaars, beautiful temples, and even military garrisons.

Key Features of the City

Urban Planning: The city had distinct zones for royal people, religious institutions, and common citizens.
Massive Walls and Gates: Huge stone walls surrounded the city, with several gateways that helped control movement and trade.
Markets: These were not just local—they attracted traders from Arabia, Persia, and Europe. Horses, spices, jewels, and textiles were commonly traded.
Water Tanks and Canals: To support agriculture and daily life, the city had a strong water management system. The Kamalapura tank is still visible today.
Temples and Mandapas: Structures like the Vitthala Temple and Hazararama Temple show the mix of architecture, sculpture, and religious life.

What Foreign Travellers Said

Several foreign travellers visited Vijayanagara and gave detailed descriptions, which are mentioned in the NCERT chapter.

Important Travellers

Domingo Paes (Portugal): Described the richness of the city and the power of the king.
Abdur Razzaq (Persia): Mentioned the size and security of the empire.
Nicolo Conti (Italy): Spoke about the wealth and cultural activities.

Their accounts help us understand how others viewed India during that time and add authenticity to the archaeological data.

Fall of Vijayanagara

Though Vijayanagara reached its peak during Krishnadevaraya’s rule (1509–1529 CE), the empire later weakened due to internal issues and continuous battles with the Deccan Sultanates. The Battle of Talikota in 1565 CE was a major turning point. After this, the city was looted and destroyed, and the capital shifted. However, its ruins—especially those in Hampi—still tell the story of its past glory.

Download PDF: NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 7 – Vijayanagara

To study this chapter properly, it’s best to download the official PDF from here:

NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 7 – Vijayanagara

NCERT Class 12 Geography (Fundamental of Human Geography) Chapter 8: International Trade – Free PDF Download and Full Chapter Summary

Chapter 8 of the NCERT Class 12 Geography (Fundamentals of Human Geography) book focuses on International Trade, which is one of the most crucial aspects of a country’s economic and political relations. This chapter explains how countries exchange goods and services across borders, the patterns of trade, the role of organisations like WTO, and India’s

Chapter 8 of the NCERT Class 12 Geography (Fundamentals of Human Geography) book focuses on International Trade, which is one of the most crucial aspects of a country’s economic and political relations. This chapter explains how countries exchange goods and services across borders, the patterns of trade, the role of organisations like WTO, and India’s position in the global trade network. It also talks about different trade routes, major exports and imports, and recent changes in global trade systems.

I chose to write about this chapter because it helps students understand not just bookish definitions but also how the world’s economies are connected. In today’s time, when prices of onions in India are affected by export bans or crude oil rates are driven by international conflicts, this chapter becomes very relatable. I strongly believe students should learn how international decisions impact their own country’s economy. Whether someone is preparing for board exams or competitive ones like UPSC, understanding the basics of trade is a must. That’s why I’ve included a PDF download link also, so students can directly study from the source material.

What is International Trade?

International trade refers to the exchange of goods and services between countries. It helps nations earn foreign exchange, create jobs, and promote economic growth.

There are two main types:

Bilateral Trade: Between two countries (e.g., India and Bangladesh)
Multilateral Trade: Involves many countries (e.g., through WTO)

This chapter also discusses the difference between free trade and protectionism. While free trade supports open markets, protectionism involves tariffs and restrictions to protect domestic industries.

Importance of International Trade

Helps countries get access to goods they cannot produce locally
Promotes cooperation among nations
Brings in foreign exchange
Boosts industrial and agricultural sectors

Major Trade Routes and Patterns

Trade routes are the paths through which goods travel across the globe. These can be land, sea or air routes.

Major Sea Routes

North Atlantic Route (between North America and Europe)
Suez Canal Route (connecting Europe to Asia)
Cape of Good Hope Route (used when Suez Canal is blocked)

Factors Affecting Trade Routes

Physical barriers like mountains and deserts
Political relations between countries
Development of transport and communication

India’s Role in Global Trade

India plays a growing role in world trade, especially in services and IT. The chapter highlights:

India exports textiles, gems and jewellery, software, petroleum products
Imports include crude oil, gold, machinery, electronics
India’s trade partners: USA, China, UAE, Saudi Arabia, and European countries

The chapter also explains government initiatives like:

Make in India
Foreign Trade Policy
Special Economic Zones (SEZs)

These are designed to increase India’s share in international trade.

Role of International Organisations

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an important part of the chapter. It regulates international trade laws and resolves trade disputes. The chapter explains the pros and cons of WTO’s role in developing nations like India.