NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 8: Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire PDF Full Chapter Notes & Download Link

The 8th chapter of the Class 12 History NCERT book is titled Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire. It gives a detailed look at rural life, land relations, crop production, revenue collection, and the position of peasants and zamindars during the Mughal rule. Covering the period between the 16th and 17th centuries, this chapter helps

The 8th chapter of the Class 12 History NCERT book is titled Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire. It gives a detailed look at rural life, land relations, crop production, revenue collection, and the position of peasants and zamindars during the Mughal rule. Covering the period between the 16th and 17th centuries, this chapter helps us understand how the economy functioned at the village level, how the Mughal state managed land revenue, and how these systems impacted people’s lives.

I chose to write about this chapter because, while kings and wars often dominate history books, the real backbone of any empire was its people—especially those who worked the land. This chapter focuses exactly on that. It’s not just about facts and names but gives a ground-level view of what rural India looked like under the Mughal Empire. For students, especially those preparing for board exams, this chapter is important for understanding the economic structure of the time and how the state interacted with farmers, revenue collectors, and local chiefs. It also helps develop a broader view of how agrarian life was shaped not just by nature but also by administration and policy.

Rural India Under the Mughal Empire

The agrarian economy was the foundation of the Mughal Empire. Most people lived in villages and were directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture. The chapter explains how land was measured, crops were classified, and taxes were collected by the Mughal rulers.

Important Features of Agrarian Society

Land Ownership: Technically, the state claimed ownership of land, but in practice, land was cultivated by peasants who had hereditary rights to use it.
Crops and Seasons: Two main cropping seasons were rabi (winter) and kharif (monsoon). Wheat, barley, pulses, and rice were common. Cotton and sugarcane were grown in some areas.
Irrigation: While rainfall was the main source of water, wells, canals, and tanks were also used, especially in regions like Punjab and Gujarat.
Village Life: Villages were not isolated. They were connected through trade routes, local fairs, and revenue networks.

Zamindars and Revenue Collection

Zamindars were local landholding elites who played a big role in revenue collection. While some were powerful chieftains with their own armies, others were village-level revenue collectors.

Roles of Zamindars

They collected land revenue on behalf of the state and kept a portion as commission.
Some zamindars had independent control over large areas and maintained troops.
They also acted as a link between the Mughal rulers and the rural population.
Their support was important for the smooth functioning of administration.

Revenue System

The most well-known system was Ain-i-Akbari, compiled by Abul Fazl during Akbar’s reign. It provided detailed information about crops, productivity, and revenue rates. Land was measured, and taxes were fixed accordingly. This system helped the empire stay rich but also put pressure on the peasantry during bad harvests.

The Life of a Peasant

Peasants were the backbone of the Mughal economy. Most of them were small cultivators with limited resources.

Challenges They Faced

High taxation
Dependence on monsoons
Forced labour in some areas
Debt due to loans taken from moneylenders

But peasants were not powerless. In some regions, they organised protests or migrated to avoid unfair revenue demands. The chapter talks about how village society had a mix of cooperation and tension between different groups.

Use of Historical Sources

One unique part of this chapter is how it uses multiple sources like:

Ain-i-Akbari: Official document listing revenues, crops, etc.
European Traveller Accounts: Like those of Francois Bernier and Jean-Baptiste Tavernier.
Bhakti and Sufi Texts: Show how rural life influenced religious ideas and vice versa.
Archaeological Evidence: Tools, pottery, and coins found in rural sites give us information about agrarian economy.

Download PDF: NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 8 – Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire

If you’re preparing for CBSE board exams or any competitive exam, it’s important to read the official chapter directly from the textbook. You can get it from here:

NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 8 – Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire

NCERT Class 12 Geography (Fundamental of Human Geography) Chapter 8: International Trade – Free PDF Download and Full Chapter Summary

Chapter 8 of the NCERT Class 12 Geography (Fundamentals of Human Geography) book focuses on International Trade, which is one of the most crucial aspects of a country’s economic and political relations. This chapter explains how countries exchange goods and services across borders, the patterns of trade, the role of organisations like WTO, and India’s

Chapter 8 of the NCERT Class 12 Geography (Fundamentals of Human Geography) book focuses on International Trade, which is one of the most crucial aspects of a country’s economic and political relations. This chapter explains how countries exchange goods and services across borders, the patterns of trade, the role of organisations like WTO, and India’s position in the global trade network. It also talks about different trade routes, major exports and imports, and recent changes in global trade systems.

I chose to write about this chapter because it helps students understand not just bookish definitions but also how the world’s economies are connected. In today’s time, when prices of onions in India are affected by export bans or crude oil rates are driven by international conflicts, this chapter becomes very relatable. I strongly believe students should learn how international decisions impact their own country’s economy. Whether someone is preparing for board exams or competitive ones like UPSC, understanding the basics of trade is a must. That’s why I’ve included a PDF download link also, so students can directly study from the source material.

What is International Trade?

International trade refers to the exchange of goods and services between countries. It helps nations earn foreign exchange, create jobs, and promote economic growth.

There are two main types:

Bilateral Trade: Between two countries (e.g., India and Bangladesh)
Multilateral Trade: Involves many countries (e.g., through WTO)

This chapter also discusses the difference between free trade and protectionism. While free trade supports open markets, protectionism involves tariffs and restrictions to protect domestic industries.

Importance of International Trade

Helps countries get access to goods they cannot produce locally
Promotes cooperation among nations
Brings in foreign exchange
Boosts industrial and agricultural sectors

Major Trade Routes and Patterns

Trade routes are the paths through which goods travel across the globe. These can be land, sea or air routes.

Major Sea Routes

North Atlantic Route (between North America and Europe)
Suez Canal Route (connecting Europe to Asia)
Cape of Good Hope Route (used when Suez Canal is blocked)

Factors Affecting Trade Routes

Physical barriers like mountains and deserts
Political relations between countries
Development of transport and communication

India’s Role in Global Trade

India plays a growing role in world trade, especially in services and IT. The chapter highlights:

India exports textiles, gems and jewellery, software, petroleum products
Imports include crude oil, gold, machinery, electronics
India’s trade partners: USA, China, UAE, Saudi Arabia, and European countries

The chapter also explains government initiatives like:

Make in India
Foreign Trade Policy
Special Economic Zones (SEZs)

These are designed to increase India’s share in international trade.

Role of International Organisations

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an important part of the chapter. It regulates international trade laws and resolves trade disputes. The chapter explains the pros and cons of WTO’s role in developing nations like India.