NCERT Class 12 Political Science Part 2 Chapter 4: India’s External Relations PDF Summary and Download Link

India’s external relations have played a key role in shaping its position in global politics after independence. Chapter 4 of the NCERT Class 12 Political Science Part 2 book, titled India’s External Relations, focuses on the foreign policy decisions India made in the early years and how those shaped its image on the world stage. This chapter mainly discusses Nehru’s vision of non-alignment, the Indo-China conflict of 1962, and the changing nature of India’s global engagement in the Cold War context. It gives students a glimpse into the challenges of maintaining sovereignty and strategic balance in a complex international environment.

I chose to write about this chapter because understanding foreign policy is not just important for political science students but for every Indian who wants to understand how India deals with the world. Topics like India-Russia relations, India-US ties, and issues like border disputes or UN reforms are all rooted in this background. Students preparing for exams or competitive tests like UPSC also find this chapter very helpful. The examples given here—like the Bandung Conference, Panchsheel Agreement, and NAM—are not just history but the foundation of our modern diplomacy. This chapter builds a strong base to understand India’s external priorities even today.

India’s Foreign Policy: Key Concepts

1. Jawaharlal Nehru’s Vision

Nehru was India’s first Prime Minister and also took charge of foreign affairs
He believed in non-alignment, which meant not joining either the US-led or USSR-led blocs during the Cold War
The goal was to maintain India’s sovereignty and take independent decisions

2. Principles of Panchsheel

These five principles formed the basis of India’s foreign policy in the 1950s:

Mutual respect for each other’s territorial integrity
Non-aggression
Non-interference in internal affairs
Equality and mutual benefit
Peaceful co-existence

These were signed between India and China in 1954, showing a hope for peaceful relations.

3. The NAM Movement

India was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)
NAM countries didn’t align with either the USA or USSR during the Cold War
It helped India maintain autonomy in international decision-making

4. The Indo-China War of 1962

Despite the Panchsheel Agreement, China attacked India in 1962
This was a major shock and changed India’s foreign and defence policy
India realised the importance of military preparedness and started building stronger defence ties

5. Shift in Foreign Policy Post-1962

India’s approach became more pragmatic
While still non-aligned, India started engaging more actively with superpowers
India signed a Treaty of Peace and Friendship with the USSR in 1971 before the Bangladesh war

6. India and the United Nations

India has always supported UN peacekeeping missions
It has also been demanding reforms in the UN Security Council and a permanent seat

Download PDF: NCERT Class 12 Political Science Part 2 Chapter 4 – India’s External Relations

To download the official PDF version of this chapter from here, follow the link below:

NCERT Class 12 Political Science Part 2 Chapter 4 – India’s External Relations

NCERT Class 12 Geography (Fundamental of Human Geography) Chapter 8: International Trade – Free PDF Download and Full Chapter Summary

Chapter 8 of the NCERT Class 12 Geography (Fundamentals of Human Geography) book focuses on International Trade, which is one of the most crucial aspects of a country’s economic and political relations. This chapter explains how countries exchange goods and services across borders, the patterns of trade, the role of organisations like WTO, and India’s

Chapter 8 of the NCERT Class 12 Geography (Fundamentals of Human Geography) book focuses on International Trade, which is one of the most crucial aspects of a country’s economic and political relations. This chapter explains how countries exchange goods and services across borders, the patterns of trade, the role of organisations like WTO, and India’s position in the global trade network. It also talks about different trade routes, major exports and imports, and recent changes in global trade systems.

I chose to write about this chapter because it helps students understand not just bookish definitions but also how the world’s economies are connected. In today’s time, when prices of onions in India are affected by export bans or crude oil rates are driven by international conflicts, this chapter becomes very relatable. I strongly believe students should learn how international decisions impact their own country’s economy. Whether someone is preparing for board exams or competitive ones like UPSC, understanding the basics of trade is a must. That’s why I’ve included a PDF download link also, so students can directly study from the source material.

What is International Trade?

International trade refers to the exchange of goods and services between countries. It helps nations earn foreign exchange, create jobs, and promote economic growth.

There are two main types:

Bilateral Trade: Between two countries (e.g., India and Bangladesh)
Multilateral Trade: Involves many countries (e.g., through WTO)

This chapter also discusses the difference between free trade and protectionism. While free trade supports open markets, protectionism involves tariffs and restrictions to protect domestic industries.

Importance of International Trade

Helps countries get access to goods they cannot produce locally
Promotes cooperation among nations
Brings in foreign exchange
Boosts industrial and agricultural sectors

Major Trade Routes and Patterns

Trade routes are the paths through which goods travel across the globe. These can be land, sea or air routes.

Major Sea Routes

North Atlantic Route (between North America and Europe)
Suez Canal Route (connecting Europe to Asia)
Cape of Good Hope Route (used when Suez Canal is blocked)

Factors Affecting Trade Routes

Physical barriers like mountains and deserts
Political relations between countries
Development of transport and communication

India’s Role in Global Trade

India plays a growing role in world trade, especially in services and IT. The chapter highlights:

India exports textiles, gems and jewellery, software, petroleum products
Imports include crude oil, gold, machinery, electronics
India’s trade partners: USA, China, UAE, Saudi Arabia, and European countries

The chapter also explains government initiatives like:

Make in India
Foreign Trade Policy
Special Economic Zones (SEZs)

These are designed to increase India’s share in international trade.

Role of International Organisations

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an important part of the chapter. It regulates international trade laws and resolves trade disputes. The chapter explains the pros and cons of WTO’s role in developing nations like India.