NCERT Class 12 Political Science Part 2 Chapter 5: Challenges to and Restoration of the Congress System – PDF Summary and Download Link

After independence, the Congress party dominated Indian politics for many years. But this dominance didn’t last forever. Chapter 5 of Class 12 Political Science Part 2 titled Challenges to and Restoration of the Congress System tells the story of how the Congress system started to break down in the late 1960s, and how it made

After independence, the Congress party dominated Indian politics for many years. But this dominance didn’t last forever. Chapter 5 of Class 12 Political Science Part 2 titled Challenges to and Restoration of the Congress System tells the story of how the Congress system started to break down in the late 1960s, and how it made a comeback under Indira Gandhi’s leadership in the 1970s. It discusses coalition politics, the rise of opposition parties, and major elections that changed the course of Indian democracy.

I’m writing about this chapter because it shows one of the most important shifts in Indian political history. For students preparing for boards or entrance exams, this chapter helps explain how Indian democracy handled political instability. It also tells us how leaders like Indira Gandhi changed the game by centralising power, launching the Garibi Hatao campaign, and navigating through challenges like the 1967 elections and the 1971 Bangladesh war. As someone who loves political history, I believe this chapter gives us the real flavour of India’s political journey from stability to uncertainty—and back.

The Breakdown of the Congress System

1. The 1967 General Elections

Marked a turning point in Indian politics
Congress lost power in many states for the first time
Several opposition parties came together to form non-Congress governments (called Samyukta Vidhayak Dal – SVD)
It signalled a major loss of public confidence in the Congress

2. Rise of Regional and Opposition Parties

Parties like DMK, Akali Dal, and Bharatiya Jana Sangh gained ground
Congress faced internal splits due to leadership struggles
These developments started a phase of coalition politics in many states

3. Indira Gandhi’s Strategy and Split in Congress

In 1969, Congress split into two factions: Congress (O) led by Syndicate leaders and Congress (R) led by Indira Gandhi
Indira took bold steps like nationalising banks and abolishing the privy purses of princes
She portrayed herself as pro-poor and used the slogan Garibi Hatao in the 1971 elections

Restoration of the Congress System

1. Indira Gandhi’s Comeback

Indira Gandhi’s Congress (R) won a clear majority in the 1971 elections
Her image as a strong leader got stronger after India’s victory in the Bangladesh Liberation War
She centralised power and weakened the position of regional Congress leaders

2. New Congress System

The new Congress system was more centred around the Prime Minister’s leadership
Earlier, Congress used to work as a broad umbrella party with collective leadership
Now it was more about strong leadership from the top

3. Legacy of the Period

The phase between 1967 and 1971 introduced Indians to multi-party democracy
Opposition became more active
Though Congress returned, it was clear that Indian voters were ready to challenge power when needed

Download PDF: NCERT Class 12 Political Science Part 2 Chapter 5 – Challenges to and Restoration of the Congress System

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NCERT Class 12 Political Science Part 2 Chapter 5 – Challenges to and Restoration of the Congress System

NCERT Class 12 Geography (Fundamental of Human Geography) Chapter 8: International Trade – Free PDF Download and Full Chapter Summary

Chapter 8 of the NCERT Class 12 Geography (Fundamentals of Human Geography) book focuses on International Trade, which is one of the most crucial aspects of a country’s economic and political relations. This chapter explains how countries exchange goods and services across borders, the patterns of trade, the role of organisations like WTO, and India’s

Chapter 8 of the NCERT Class 12 Geography (Fundamentals of Human Geography) book focuses on International Trade, which is one of the most crucial aspects of a country’s economic and political relations. This chapter explains how countries exchange goods and services across borders, the patterns of trade, the role of organisations like WTO, and India’s position in the global trade network. It also talks about different trade routes, major exports and imports, and recent changes in global trade systems.

I chose to write about this chapter because it helps students understand not just bookish definitions but also how the world’s economies are connected. In today’s time, when prices of onions in India are affected by export bans or crude oil rates are driven by international conflicts, this chapter becomes very relatable. I strongly believe students should learn how international decisions impact their own country’s economy. Whether someone is preparing for board exams or competitive ones like UPSC, understanding the basics of trade is a must. That’s why I’ve included a PDF download link also, so students can directly study from the source material.

What is International Trade?

International trade refers to the exchange of goods and services between countries. It helps nations earn foreign exchange, create jobs, and promote economic growth.

There are two main types:

Bilateral Trade: Between two countries (e.g., India and Bangladesh)
Multilateral Trade: Involves many countries (e.g., through WTO)

This chapter also discusses the difference between free trade and protectionism. While free trade supports open markets, protectionism involves tariffs and restrictions to protect domestic industries.

Importance of International Trade

Helps countries get access to goods they cannot produce locally
Promotes cooperation among nations
Brings in foreign exchange
Boosts industrial and agricultural sectors

Major Trade Routes and Patterns

Trade routes are the paths through which goods travel across the globe. These can be land, sea or air routes.

Major Sea Routes

North Atlantic Route (between North America and Europe)
Suez Canal Route (connecting Europe to Asia)
Cape of Good Hope Route (used when Suez Canal is blocked)

Factors Affecting Trade Routes

Physical barriers like mountains and deserts
Political relations between countries
Development of transport and communication

India’s Role in Global Trade

India plays a growing role in world trade, especially in services and IT. The chapter highlights:

India exports textiles, gems and jewellery, software, petroleum products
Imports include crude oil, gold, machinery, electronics
India’s trade partners: USA, China, UAE, Saudi Arabia, and European countries

The chapter also explains government initiatives like:

Make in India
Foreign Trade Policy
Special Economic Zones (SEZs)

These are designed to increase India’s share in international trade.

Role of International Organisations

The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an important part of the chapter. It regulates international trade laws and resolves trade disputes. The chapter explains the pros and cons of WTO’s role in developing nations like India.